Chapter 21: Ghost in the Machine
Here consciousness and free will are examined as unique traits of humans. First the arguments for materialism attempting to explain consciousness are presented. what affects the body appears to affect the mind. When the brain is damaged, the mind seems to be likewise. D'Souza posits that self-consciousness and consciousness of others is evidence for the soul. He says that evolution fail to adequately explain our minds. Furthermore, evolution does not entail generating a mind, if it can even do that, that would value truth. A useful lie is better than an inconvenient truth.
Free will is presented as another argument against materialism. According to Kant, we have terms and values for morality, therefore if these are to have any meaning we must have free will. I personally found this argument to be rather dissatisfying if not circular.
Tuesday, December 30, 2014
Part VII: Christianity and morality
Chapter 20: Natural Law and Divine Law
D'Souza starts off by arguing that sociological and historical evidence for a universal morality. Atheists accept that there appears to be normative values that cross cultures. Furthermore, atheists are willing to admit that certain acts are truly evil. When it comes to morality, they explain it in terms of kin selection and reciprocal helping. Kin selection is the choosing by genes on which host to perserve. This is why a woman may risk her life to save her children or a father may choose the life of his relatives over strangers in a zero sum game. Reciprocal helping is the idea that if I am kind to you, then you will be kind to me. While there ideas appear to explain some moral behavior there are instances of higher altruism, or kindness without apparent benefit. For instance, what are we to make of the young person who gives up their seat for the elderly?
C.S. Lewis builds an argument that says morals are not merely sentiments. Take for instance coming across a drowning man. Even if you are a poor swimmer you will have two competing urges. The cost/benefits of social psychology at play. However, above and beyond these is a sense of oughtness. Regardless of the cost/benefits, we feel as if something should be done. Thus, D'Souza ends the absolute morality chapter by showing that morality is something universal, it is not wholly explained by evolution, and it is a sensation unique from sentiments.
Chapter 20: Natural Law and Divine Law
D'Souza starts off by arguing that sociological and historical evidence for a universal morality. Atheists accept that there appears to be normative values that cross cultures. Furthermore, atheists are willing to admit that certain acts are truly evil. When it comes to morality, they explain it in terms of kin selection and reciprocal helping. Kin selection is the choosing by genes on which host to perserve. This is why a woman may risk her life to save her children or a father may choose the life of his relatives over strangers in a zero sum game. Reciprocal helping is the idea that if I am kind to you, then you will be kind to me. While there ideas appear to explain some moral behavior there are instances of higher altruism, or kindness without apparent benefit. For instance, what are we to make of the young person who gives up their seat for the elderly?
C.S. Lewis builds an argument that says morals are not merely sentiments. Take for instance coming across a drowning man. Even if you are a poor swimmer you will have two competing urges. The cost/benefits of social psychology at play. However, above and beyond these is a sense of oughtness. Regardless of the cost/benefits, we feel as if something should be done. Thus, D'Souza ends the absolute morality chapter by showing that morality is something universal, it is not wholly explained by evolution, and it is a sensation unique from sentiments.
Chapter 18 & 19: Rethinking the Inquisition & License to Kill
I am writing about both these chapters together because they cover much of the same information.
Chapter 18
To start off, D'Souza argues that the atrocities ascribed to religion by opponents are either revisionist or grossly over-exaggerated. Taking the example of the Crusades, D'Souza argues that the West was defending itself from Islam's self-proclaimed mandate to conquer Europe. Therefore, much of the violence on the Christian side could be considered as military action that was not supported by religion, but by self-defense. On the Muslim side, it was a sort of manifest destiny to conquer Europe, not from religious prejudice against Christians. Much of the pillaging by Christians were done in order for them to survive while fighting back Islam from taking over Europe. In the case of the Salem witch trials, less than 25 people were killed. This number, while sad, certain does not measure up to a great massacre when compared to the likes of Pol Pot or Mao.
Chapter 19
Putting the proverbial shoe on the other foot, D'Souza examines the atrocities done against mankind by atheistic motives. First pointing out that Mao and Stalin killed collectively 90 million people, which made Hitler's number look paltry at 10 million, D'Souza points out that if Christianity should be held responsible for those who claim to be Christian and commit massive killings, then so should atheism. However, if this argument causes the tenacious atheist to simply say that atheism does not logical lead to these kinds of catastrophes, one only need to cite Dostoevsky to point out that Christ himself would not be aligned with the atrocities committed in the name of Christianity.
I am writing about both these chapters together because they cover much of the same information.
Chapter 18
To start off, D'Souza argues that the atrocities ascribed to religion by opponents are either revisionist or grossly over-exaggerated. Taking the example of the Crusades, D'Souza argues that the West was defending itself from Islam's self-proclaimed mandate to conquer Europe. Therefore, much of the violence on the Christian side could be considered as military action that was not supported by religion, but by self-defense. On the Muslim side, it was a sort of manifest destiny to conquer Europe, not from religious prejudice against Christians. Much of the pillaging by Christians were done in order for them to survive while fighting back Islam from taking over Europe. In the case of the Salem witch trials, less than 25 people were killed. This number, while sad, certain does not measure up to a great massacre when compared to the likes of Pol Pot or Mao.
Chapter 19
Putting the proverbial shoe on the other foot, D'Souza examines the atrocities done against mankind by atheistic motives. First pointing out that Mao and Stalin killed collectively 90 million people, which made Hitler's number look paltry at 10 million, D'Souza points out that if Christianity should be held responsible for those who claim to be Christian and commit massive killings, then so should atheism. However, if this argument causes the tenacious atheist to simply say that atheism does not logical lead to these kinds of catastrophes, one only need to cite Dostoevsky to point out that Christ himself would not be aligned with the atrocities committed in the name of Christianity.
Chapter 17: A Skeptic's Wager
Pascal's wager is fully laid out in this chapter. D'Souza points out that in the end, apatheists and agnostics are not safe from making a final decision. Furthermore, agnostics live like "practical atheists". Against the argument that if God provided more evidence more would believe, D'Souza cites Pascal who believed God's hiddenness keeps Him from forcing Himself on those who do not want to believe. Furthermore, Faith allows for anyone to access God. If reason alone was the appropriate way to discover God, it would make salvation aristocratic. Faith is democratic.
Pascal's wager is fully laid out in this chapter. D'Souza points out that in the end, apatheists and agnostics are not safe from making a final decision. Furthermore, agnostics live like "practical atheists". Against the argument that if God provided more evidence more would believe, D'Souza cites Pascal who believed God's hiddenness keeps Him from forcing Himself on those who do not want to believe. Furthermore, Faith allows for anyone to access God. If reason alone was the appropriate way to discover God, it would make salvation aristocratic. Faith is democratic.
Chapter 16: In the Belly of a Whale
Positivism is layout as the main reason many people reject miracles today. Hume's classic argument is laid out :
1. A miracle is a violation of known laws.
2. We know these laws through repeated and constant experience.
3. The testimony of those who report miracles contradicts the operations of known scientific laws.
4. Therefore, we should reject all miracle claims.
D'Souza shows, using Hume's other writings, that this of course is a fallacious argument. For one, scientific laws can be misrepresenting reality. Scientific laws are inductively known, but can not be proved. Second, you can not know how many trials it takes to establish a law as true, you can only say it is reliable.
After dismantling this argument, D'Souza should how logical positivism is invalid, because it fails to pass its own test of being either 1) verified by evidence or 2) analytically true. It is in a different category than either of these truth claims and therefore is self-refuting.
Positivism is layout as the main reason many people reject miracles today. Hume's classic argument is laid out :
1. A miracle is a violation of known laws.
2. We know these laws through repeated and constant experience.
3. The testimony of those who report miracles contradicts the operations of known scientific laws.
4. Therefore, we should reject all miracle claims.
D'Souza shows, using Hume's other writings, that this of course is a fallacious argument. For one, scientific laws can be misrepresenting reality. Scientific laws are inductively known, but can not be proved. Second, you can not know how many trials it takes to establish a law as true, you can only say it is reliable.
After dismantling this argument, D'Souza should how logical positivism is invalid, because it fails to pass its own test of being either 1) verified by evidence or 2) analytically true. It is in a different category than either of these truth claims and therefore is self-refuting.
Part V: Christianity and Philosophy
Chapter 15: The World Beyond our Senses
D'Souza presents transcendental idealism as an argument against a rationist philosophy. He argues that Kant showed the limits of reason and trusting in the five senses. Kant is cited as saying that we can not know reality because we only have the five senses, we have only our experiences. In the same way that a bat experiences through his senses what it is like to be a bat, the best we can do is devise devices that allow us to have new tools for sensing the world, but everything is still filtered through our senses.
Drawn out, Kant can not say that we do not know reality, only that we can not be sure if what we perceive is reality. From an materialistic perspective, this leaves us in an agnostic position. For the Christian, this coincides with the belief in supernatural phenomena.
Chapter 15: The World Beyond our Senses
D'Souza presents transcendental idealism as an argument against a rationist philosophy. He argues that Kant showed the limits of reason and trusting in the five senses. Kant is cited as saying that we can not know reality because we only have the five senses, we have only our experiences. In the same way that a bat experiences through his senses what it is like to be a bat, the best we can do is devise devices that allow us to have new tools for sensing the world, but everything is still filtered through our senses.
Drawn out, Kant can not say that we do not know reality, only that we can not be sure if what we perceive is reality. From an materialistic perspective, this leaves us in an agnostic position. For the Christian, this coincides with the belief in supernatural phenomena.
Chapter 14: The Genesis Problem
D'Souza expands on issues with biogenesis as well as pointing out the differences between methodological and philosophical atheism. He explains that good scientists attempt to explain natural relationships using only natural means, however this does not entail that only the natural exists. These individuals may examine how neurons or related to mental activity, but they do not have to presuppose that mental activity is only neurons. Philosophical atheism on the other hand assumes that the natural world is all there is, therefore all explanations now and in the future must have a natural cause. An issues between religion and science appears to be only philosophical, because methodologically there is no overlap between the explanations for relationships. For instance, if asked why water is boiling, methodologically a scientist will explain it in terms of heat and the properties of molecules. He is confined to these sorts of answers. Philosophically though he can use either an atheistic answer or a different sort, for instance the water is boiling because I wanted tea.
D'Souza expands on issues with biogenesis as well as pointing out the differences between methodological and philosophical atheism. He explains that good scientists attempt to explain natural relationships using only natural means, however this does not entail that only the natural exists. These individuals may examine how neurons or related to mental activity, but they do not have to presuppose that mental activity is only neurons. Philosophical atheism on the other hand assumes that the natural world is all there is, therefore all explanations now and in the future must have a natural cause. An issues between religion and science appears to be only philosophical, because methodologically there is no overlap between the explanations for relationships. For instance, if asked why water is boiling, methodologically a scientist will explain it in terms of heat and the properties of molecules. He is confined to these sorts of answers. Philosophically though he can use either an atheistic answer or a different sort, for instance the water is boiling because I wanted tea.
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